Global Management and Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Global Management and Leadership - Essay Example There are various functional departments such as finance, operations, Human Resources, Wholesale, Direct Sales, Information Technology, Marketing, Merchandise, Property, Sales, Supply Chain and Design. The heads of all these departments report to the CEO. The CEO along with other directors forms the board of directors which takes crucial organizational decisions. Such an organizational structure suits a company like Pumpkin Patch whose lines of business are quite few. This organizational structure enables appropriate designation of responsibilities (Organizational Chart Pumpkin patch, 2010). Pumpkin patch has been following an aggressive growth strategy which is not constrained by geographical boundaries. The company has retail stores in 4 countries as well as wholesale association in 16 countries. 80% of company’s revenues come from outside New Zealand. The company is listed on the New Zealand stock exchange and has more than 200 stores worldwide. It has strong financial stat ements and cash flows. A large part of the company’s sales comes through online sales. This indicates its adaptability to modern technologies, tastes and lifestyles. 2. Weaknesses As Pumpkin Patch grows, relying on a simple organizational structure as present could be risky. There would be a need to include structural components based on geography and lines of business. For example, there could be geographical heads for 4 prime geographical regions the company caters to (Organizational Chart Pumpkin patch, 2010). Pumpkin Patch’s turnover is still a fraction of the top retailers in United States and has a long way to go in spite of its recent scalability. 3. Opportunities Pumpkin Patch has a number of opportunities in all 3 channels of sales it uses i.e. Retail, Wholesale and Direct (Internet). In retail segment, the company has been relying solely on margins rather than volumes. Pumpkin Patch needs to scale up even faster to gain a significant market share in the crowd ed U.S. market. For this, the company can make use of franchise model. In the wholesale segment, the company needs to have strategic collaborations with top multi-brand retail chains such as Spencer’s and Wal-mart. Internet market is the best opportunity Pumpkin Patch can make use of. This is a relatively new sales channel and Pumpkin already has a significant presence there. It has not been exploited to its potential by competitors. This should be treated as a priority. The aim should be to generate at least half of the sales from this channel in coming years (Pumpkin patch Limited, 2007). 4. Threats Pumpkin has a significant mind space among the customers. However, U.S. children’s clothing market is highly crowded. There are well known reputed brands such as Gap, Next, Mango, Zara, Billabong, Gymboore and others (Pumpkin patch Limited, 2007). Scaling up in wake of this intense competition would be a difficult task and involve marketing and infrastructure spends. With huge store opening costs, the company may not be able to realize economies of scale with small stores. References Organizational Chart Pumpkin patch. (2010). Retrieved online January 18, 2012 from Pumpkin patch Limited. (2007). Macquarie Securities Data Related Information from PART 2 Relevance of Core Competencies Core competency is the unique capability of a firm that cannot be easily imitated and provides it a unique competitive edge. Core competencies

Necessity be the mother of invention Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Necessity be the mother of invention - Essay Example Also any decline in the gross domestic production for more than two successive quarters is referred to as recession. When recession falls on a society, it is applicable on the producers, consumers, business organizations, industrialists, in short the whole society. In times of recession, the society affected, should aim on producing innovating and sustainable methods to provide means of reduction in the recession instead of reducing number of businesses, firing employees, reduction in usage of technologies developed from before. Innovation can play its role in the society by pushing recession backwards, and if that is not possible than it can at least stop recession from growing and bringing the economy further down. This can be achieved by long-term strategies and public investments in different fields especially growth sectors to provide better technologies so that recession does not overtake the society and the economic demands of the people of that society. Recession leading to i nnovation and prosperity As recession progresses, a decrease in the trading and industrial activities is witnessed. This is a negative respond by the business organizations and industrialists. ... When these business organizations decrease their work out put, they have less work load which is why they fire their employees; increasing the rate of unemployment and making the society feel that real recession has approached. This is a negative response to recession by the business organizations which leads the economy towards a downfall. A more positive approach would be to increase work load by increasing work out put with the help of more employees. This way the employees will not feel the burden of recession and they will work with devotion for their company or firm. These are some of the main reasons of progression of recession. One major cause is inflation. It is referred to as a rise in the price of goods and services. When recession occurs, the customers spend less and save more money on goods especially with their inflated prices. Therefore, fewer amounts of goods can be purchased, reducing sales. Inflation can be caused by different factors such as increase in the product ion costs, increased energy costs and national debt. When a company faces severe consequences of recession, it tends to decrease the quality by cutting production costs hence cost of the product is lowered. The change of quality of products neglects the requirements and needs of the customer. Instead of compromising on quality of product, the organizations along with their researchers should work on reprocessing the methods of making the products and by taking the risk of introducing new products. Innovating new products will earn the organization confidence of the customer, and when the period of recession ends, the customers will continue to look up to that organization that took care of their needs in times of crisis. This way the company which allows innovations will run

Comparing and Contrasting Biblical and Professional Views of Addiction Essay Example for Free

Comparing and Contrasting Biblical and Professional Views of Addiction Essay Running head: COMPARING AND CONTRASTING VIEWS OF ADDICTION Comparing and Contrasting Biblical and Professional Views of Addiction Mike Hill Liberty University Abstract This paper compares and contrasts the biblical view of addiction counseling with the historical and current professional standpoint. This is achieved by carefully inspecting from a biblical perspective the meanings and usages of terms such as counsel, advice, wine, strong drink, abstinence, and others. This paper will also present the definition, etiology, assessment, diagnosis, consequences, and intervention strategies related to addiction. Finally, the last section will provide personal insights and applications. Comparing and Contrasting Biblical and Professional Views of Addiction Introduction As the fabled emperor proudly paraded around in his new clothes, the whole hamlet knew there was a problem except the naked, self-deceived ruler. Similarly, the common threads that bind most substance abusers are denial and destructive behavior. Kanel (2007) summarized substance dependence as â€Å"a maladaptive pattern of substance abuse leading to clinically significant impairment or distress† (p. 169). Clients who present with alcohol dependence or abuse have a vice-grip hold on defenses which include denial, displacement, fantasy, projection, rationalization, minimizing, and repression (Kanel, 2007, pp. 174-175). For example, Kanel (2007) asserts, â€Å"Denial is strong in these types of clients because most of them who come in for counseling are still capable of functioning on the job; therefore, they do not see themselves as addicts† (p. 175). However, denial does not cover the problem nor the devastating consequences. Nationally, researchers have estimated a staggering 40% of all traffic crash fatalities are alcohol related (NIAA, 2010). Research has also demonstrated  that most high school students â€Å"started their drug involvement with beer or wine. The second stage involved hard liquor, cigarettes, or both.† In the third stage, teens moved on to illicit drug use (Ksir, Hart, Oakley, 2009, p. 17). In addition, in 2008, 51.6% of Americans age 12 and older had used alcohol at least once in the 30 days prior to being surveyed (NIDA, 2010). The estimated cost of alcohol abuse and alcoholism to the United States is in the billions—a sobering thought, especially in our current economic distress (NIAA, 2010). The purpose of this paper is to compare and contrast the biblical view of addiction counseling with the historical and current professional standpoint. This goal will be achieved by carefully inspecting from a biblical perspective the meanings and usages of terms such as counsel, advice, wisdom, plan, purpose, instruction, and help as well as words related to addiction which include wine, strong drink, desire, self-control, and abstinence. Secondly, this paper will compare and contrast the professional view of counseling versus biblical counseling as related to addiction. This section will present the definition, etiology, assessment, diagnosis, consequences, and intervention strategies related to addiction. Finally, the last section will provide personal insights and applications. Biblical Words Related to Counseling To grasp the message of a song, it is necessary to dissect the lyrics. Likewise, to comprehend the philosophy and purpose of counseling, the meaning of the words related to it must be defined and understood. According to a biblical worldview, the first word to be defined is â€Å"counsel.† Counsel The word â€Å"counsel† in the Bible is derived from different Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek words. The word definitions were derived from the Blue Letter Bible (2010) website which provides the meanings of the words from Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible. A sample of Old Testament (OT) usages from the New King James Version (NKJV) and the King James Version (KJV) are as follows: a. Ya‘ats (verb)—means â€Å"to advise, to consult, devise, or plan.† David joyfully proclaimed, â€Å"I will bless the LORD who has given me counsel (ya‘ats)† (Psalm 16:7 NKJV). David identified the Lord as being the source of good counsel. b. Dabar (noun)—refers to â€Å"a saying or speech.† The counsel (dabar) of Balaam led the Israelites away from the Lord which resulted in severe judgment (Numbers 31:16). From this Hebrew usage, counseling can be understood as much more than simply listening to clients. Listening plays a large part in establishing a working alliance, but counseling also involves the counselor supplying verbal input, albeit, better counsel than Balaam’s. c. ‘Etsah (noun)—means â€Å"advice or purpose.† This word is akin to the Greek word boule. Clinton and Ohlschlager (2002) discovered that, â€Å"The word occurs more than a hundred times in the Septuagint, where it is used seventy-four times to translate the Hebrew word etzah† (p. 59). Usage of this word in both Psalm 33:10-11 and Psalm 1 demonstrate that there are basically two types of counsel: either ungodly or godly. â€Å"The LORD bringeth the counsel (‘etsah) of the heathen to nought: He maketh the devices of the people of none effect. The counsel (‘etsah) of the LORD standeth for ever, the thoughts of His heart to all generations† (Psalm 33:10-11 KJV). This word is also used in 2Samuel 15:31, 34, 1Kings 12:8, Psalm 1:1, 33:10-11, Proverbs 20:5, and Isaiah 11:2. d. Tachbulah (noun)—conveys the idea of â€Å"direction, guidance, or good advice.† (See Proverbs 11:14.) e. Melak (Aramaic-noun)—means â€Å"advice.† (See Daniel 4:27.) The New Testament (NT) was originally written in Greek. The following Greek words are translated into the English word â€Å"counsel†: a. Sumbouleuo (verb)—means â€Å"to counsel, to advise, or exhort.† The essence of the counsel (sumbouleuo) of Jesus to nominal believers in Laodicea was to turn from their materialistic self-complacency and open their hearts to true intimacy with Him (Rev. 3:18, 20). This word also means â€Å"to consult together or to plot† as used in Matthew 26:4 and Matthew 28:12. b. Boule (noun)—means â€Å"counsel, purpose, design, determination, or decree.† This word is used in Luke 7:30, Acts 2:23, Ephesians 1:11, and Hebrews 6:17. Noted  Greek scholar Ken Wuest (1947) adds that boule means, â€Å"To desire, which desire comes from one’s reason†¦counsel to the effect that the soul might find a sure refuge in the Lord Jesus† (p. 123). c. Bouleuo (verb)—means â€Å"to give counsel, to purpose, or to determine.† The idea of counsel being â€Å"advice or the act of giving advice† is a common thread tying most of these words together. Tachbulah, boule and bouleuo include â€Å"purpose† and â€Å"direction† to further expound the meaning. While good counsel includes advice-giving, Clinton and Ohlschlager (2002) encourage an approach that helps the client discover truth rather than simply telling them what the truth is. Drawing from Proverbs 20:5, they assert, â€Å"Truth drawn out of the client’s own life tends to be more deeply understood and more actively embraced, and it motivates and sustains the change process† (p. 204). Advice The next word â€Å"advice† is translated from two different Hebrew words and a Greek word. a. Dabar (noun) and ‘etsah (noun)—are Hebrew words that are also translated as â€Å"counsel† in the OT as described above. b. Gnome (noun)—this Greek word means â€Å"view, intention, or reason.† c. Webster’s dictionary (1983) defines advice as â€Å"counsel; an opinion offered as worthy to be followed in a particular situation† (p. 29). Plan â€Å"Plan† and â€Å"purpose† are both translated from the Hebrew word machashabah (noun) which is found in Proverbs 16:3, Proverbs 20:18 and Jeremiah 29:11. In the New Testament, the Greek word prothesis (noun) means â€Å"purpose, a predetermination, or a setting forth† and is used in Romans 8:28; and 9:11. Instruction Another word related to counseling is â€Å"instruction.† Examples from the Old Testament and New Testament are as follows: a. Muwcar (noun)—Hebrew meaning â€Å"discipline or correction† as in Proverbs 19:20. b. Paideia (noun)—this Greek word refers to the â€Å"training up† of children into adulthood. As it relates to believers, it is â€Å"instruction with the aim at increasing virtue.† A key passage where this word is used is 2Timothy 3:16. Wisdom Wise counsel is non-negotiable for success in the therapeutic relationship. â€Å"Wisdom† is defined in the Hebrew and Greek below: a. Chokmah (noun)—this Hebrew word also means â€Å"shrewdness or prudence.† There is a prophetic reference to the Messiah in Isaiah 11:2 indicating that He would have the â€Å"Spirit of wisdom (chokmah)† upon Him. b. Sophia (noun)—Mounce (1993) defines this word as â€Å"wisdom, in general, knowledge, learning, science or enlightenment† (p. 419). This word can be found in James 3:16-17 where wisdom from God is contrasted with earthly, demonic wisdom. Help Finally, forming a helping relationship is necessary for client change (Horvath Luborsky, 1993, p. 561). The Hebrew words ‘ezrah and azar as well as the Greek words boetheia, sullambano, and epikouria, all basically mean â€Å"to help.† Psalm 60:11 concludes that help (‘ezrah) from man is useless. True help is only from the Lord. Christian counselors can boldly visit God’s throne of grace to receive grace for the right help (boetheia) to extend to clients (Hebrews 4:16). As connecting dot-to-dots will form an image, combining these words together will provide a picture of counseling from a biblical worldview. In essence, there are two types of counsel: either godly or ungodly. Godly, wise counsel originates from God and accomplishes His purposes. Ungodly, unwise counsel is â€Å"earthly, sensual, demonic† and fulfills the plans of this present age (James 3:15-17). The goal of Christian counseling includes  God’s eternal plan for souls to enter a relationship with Jesus and grow in Him. The priority of the counsel of Jesus is intimacy with Him above attaining material wealth and earthly satisfaction (Revelation 3:18, 20). In contrast, secular counseling has the temporal goal of human satisfaction and self-fulfillment (Clinton Ohlschlager, 2002, p. 77). Bufford (1997) considers the difference in goals as the most important factor distinguishing Christian from secular counseling (p. 120). For example, suppose a client’s unwanted pregnancy was causing distress in her life. A secular counselor would provide abortion as an option (Feldman, 2008, p. 57). A competent Christian counselor would assist the client to view issues through the lens of Scripture and would not suggest abortion as an option (AACC code of ethics, 2004, p. 7). Rather, the Christian counselor would supply other options such as adoption, para-church ministries, and other ideas to support the decision of carrying the baby to term. Fulfillment, satisfaction, and peace are the by-products of godly counsel. When Moses appropriated the counsel of his father-in-law Jethro, he was able to manage his overwhelming responsibilities more efficiently and to have peace of mind (Exodus 18:19). Another illustration of counseling in Scripture is in 2Samuel 15. Ahithophel was once King David’s counselor. Ahithophel’s job was to provide advice to the king in order for him to make wise decisions in war plans and to understand the mind of the Lord in other practical matters. Proverbs 20:18 (NKJV) instructs, â€Å"Plans (machashabah) are established by counsel (‘etsah); by wise counsel (tachbulah) wage war.† However, Ahithophel betrayed David by becoming Absalom’s counselor. Therefore, David prayed that Ahithophel’s counsel would be turned to foolishness. God honored David’s request, and the Lord’s counsel and purpose was accomplished (2Samuel 15-17). Ultimately, God’s counsel will stand forever, whereas the opinions and plans of man will pass away (Psalm 33:10-11). Biblical Words Related to Addiction Wine a. Yayin (noun)—means â€Å"wine.† Sometime after he departed from the ark, Noah became intoxicated by wine. Noah’s inebriated condition elicited a lack of inhibitory control because he â€Å"was uncovered within his tent†Ã‚  (Genesis 9:21 KJV). As a result, his son Ham apparently engaged in some sort of inappropriate behavior (Genesis 9:22-25). Lot’s daughters introduced wine into their plan to perform inappropriate behavior with their father (Genesis 19:32-35). These two examples present the negative side of wine abuse which coincides with sobering warnings in other passages (cf. Proverbs 20:1; 23:31-35). Scripture also displays wine as an illustration of joy. The Lord provides â€Å"wine that makes glad the heart of man† (Psalm 104:15a NKJV). b. Oinos (noun)—In the NT, this Greek word means â€Å"wine.† Vine and Bruce (1981)  expound, â€Å"The drinking of wine could be a stumbling-block and the Apostle enjoins  abstinence in this respect, as in others, so as to avoid giving an occasion of stumbling to a brother (Romans 14:21)† (p. 219). In contrast, Paul encourages Timothy to â€Å"no longer drink only water, but use a little wine for your stomachs sake and your frequent infirmities† (1Timothy 5:23 NKJV). Strong drink a. Shekar (noun)—is an OT Hebrew word meaning, â€Å"strong drink or intoxicating liquor.† While performing priestly duties in the tabernacle, Aaron and his sons were forbidden to drink wine or strong drink under penalty of death (Leviticus 10:19). b. Sikera (noun)—In the NT, this word means, â€Å"intoxicating beverage which is different  from wine.† It was made of a mixture of sweet ingredients. John the Baptist did not drink wine or strong drink, but he was filled with the Holy Spirit from his mother’s womb (Luke 1:15). Desire a. Teshuwqah—This OT word means â€Å"desire, longing, or craving.† God confronted Cain by personifying sin as a crouching lion ready to destroy  him, who’s â€Å"desire [is] for you, but you should rule over it† (Genesis 4:7b NKJV). b. Chamad—In Exodus, this Hebrew word meaning â€Å"desire, to take pleasure in, or to delight in† is translated as â€Å"covet,† being utilized in a negative sense. For example, the tenth commandment indicates that individuals are not to â€Å"covet† anything that belongs to a neighbor (Exodus 20:17). c. Zeloo—This NT Greek word means â€Å"to be heated for or to be zealously sought after.† This word is either used in a good or evil way, depending upon the context. For example, James rebukes believers for desiring things with a sinful motive (James 4:2). In contrast, Paul exhorts believers to desire spiritual gifts (1Corinthians 14:1). d. Epithumeo—This Greek word meaning â€Å"to long for, to lust after, a craving, to have a desire for, or to seek things forbidden† is presented in either a negative or positive light, depending upon the context. For example, Jesus revealed to His disciples that â€Å"many prophets and righteous men desired to see what you see† concerning the kingdom of God. However, the usage of this word may also denote a sinful desire as in Romans when Paul disclosed that he became aware of his sinful nature when the commandment declared, â€Å"You shall not covet (epithumeo)† (Romans 7:7). The Bible appears to indicate that lust (epithumeo) and love are mutually exclusive (1John 2:15-17). Self-control a. ‘Aphaq—This OT Hebrew word means â€Å"to hold back, refrain, or to restrain oneself.† Scripture instructs that a wise person will refrain from taking the popular path of the crowd and making sinful choices (Proverbs 1:8). b. Egkrates—means â€Å"to exercise self-government, to conduct one’s self temperately, or to exhibit self-control.† Paul draws upon the competitive edge required to win in athletic events to inspire believers to exercise self-control as he describes, â€Å"Everyone who competes [for the prize] is temperate in all things† (1Corinthians 9:25a NKJV). Paul reveals that the  ability to manifest self-control is the by-product of the work of God’s Spirit within a believer’s life (Galatians 5:23). Abstinence a. Nazar—means â€Å"to separate, consecrate, or to dedicate.† For example, men who had consecrated themselves to God with a Nazarite vow â€Å"must give up (nazar) wine and other alcoholic drinks† (Numbers 6:3a NLT). Though certain individuals may choose to take a vow that requires abstinence, Miller (1995) asserts, â€Å"Nowhere in scripture is abstinence from alcohol prescribed as a general rule† (p. 78). He cautions, â€Å"Alcohol is now known, for example, to damage brain tissue, and measures of brain impairment are correlated with amount even in the ‘moderation’ range† (Miller, 1995, p. 78). b. Apexo—means â€Å"to hold one’s self off, refrain, or abstain.† The Bible teaches that God’s will is for believers to â€Å"abstain (apexo) from sexual immorality† (1Thessalonians 4:3). In fact, believers are commanded to â€Å"abstain from every form of evil† (1Thessalonians 5:22 NKJV). Scholars question whether a particular drug may be deemed as evil, requiring complete abstinence. Miller (1995) offers, â€Å"If a certain drug serves no good and useful purpose, and there is no known ‘safe’ level of use which does not cause harm (or risk of harm) to the person, then the use of that drug might be regarded in itself as sinful† (p. 81). He concludes, â€Å"As in the biblical view of alcohol, the appropriate use of chemicals is generally accepted in society† (p. 81). Comparing and Contrasting Biblical Views with Professional Views Addiction Defined As the rudder steers a ship, a counselor’s theory guides the counseling process. To effectively steer the therapeutic session of clients with addictions, counselors must understand the dynamics of addiction. Addiction is defined as â€Å"self-destructive behaviors that include a pharmacological component. The most stringent application would limit the term addiction and the companion label of addict to individuals with a physiological dependence on one or more illegal drugs.† (DiClemente, 2003, p. 3). Addiction involves â€Å"an escalating pattern involving tolerance (e.g., seeming to be relatively unaffected by ordinary doses) and dependence (e.g., relying  upon the drug to function or feel normal)† (Miller, 1995, p. 82). Still, over the past two decades, the definition of addiction has broadened to include â€Å"any substance use or reinforcing behavior that has an appetitive nature, has a compulsive and repetitive quality, is self-destructive, and is experi enced as difficult to modify or stop† (DiClemente, 2003, p. 4). Gambling, shopping, video games, internet pornography, negative view of body image, and even work may be included under the umbrella this broad definition of addiction (LaBerge, 2009, p. 13). The biblical definition of addiction coincides with the expanded definition, equating addiction with habitual self-absorbed behaviors which produce spiritual slavery. Welch (2001) clarifies, Addiction is bondage to the rule of a substance, activity, or state of mind, which then becomes the center of life, defending itself from the truth so that even bad consequences dont bring repentance, and leading to further estrangement from God. To locate it on the theological map, look under sin (p. 35). Etiology Counselors with clients who present with symptoms of alcohol and drug addiction need to have competencies such as an understanding of addiction, treatment knowledge, how to appropriately integrate treatment modalities, assessment, screening, and diagnostic insight (Treatment Improvement Exchange, 2010). Scholars debate the origin of addiction, as observed by the variety of proposed models of addiction. The models of addiction include: the disease (genetic/physiological) model, coping/social learning model, personality/intrapsychic model, compulsive/excessive behavior model, and the conditioning/reinforcement model (DiClemente, 2003, pp. 9-18). The disease model posits that alcoholism is the direct result of genetic influences. Yet, researchers demonstrate that â€Å"genetic factors account for approximately ‘half the risk for alcoholism.’† (Van Der Walde, Urgenson, Weltz, Hanna, 2002, p. 146). Miller (1993) noted how a pure disease model does not give any role to the psychological factors in treatment (p. 132). Still, there appear to be two types of alcoholism which researchers present as evidence for a genetic influence. Van Der Walde et al. (2002) describe, â€Å"The first is a severe form of early-onset alcoholism, which often presents  before age 21 and is characterized by a high density among first-degree relatives† (p. 146). The second form â€Å"does not appear until middle age and seems to be triggered by negative life events such as loss of a significant other or other environmental influences† (Van Der Walde et al., 2002, p. 146). The social/environment model emphasizes an individual’s lack of coping skills in response to life’s stressors in conjunction with vicarious learning of maladaptive behaviors from others (DiClemente, 2003, p. 13). The coping model theorizes that individuals who are unable to deal with life stressors seek to escape through their addiction, relying upon the addiction for comfort (DiClemente, 2003, p. 13). Pangle (2010) observes, â€Å"There seems to always be an emotional distress associated with addiction. This emotional distress finds relief [or so the addict thinks] in numbing out and finding a temporary ‘escape’ from the pain involved† (personal communication, January 28, 2010). Hester and Miller (2003) cite several coping skill deficits such as the â€Å"lack of adequate skills to regulate positive and negative mood states as well as to cope with social-interpersonal situations, including work, parenting, or marital relationships† (p. 213). Concerning the social learning aspect of this model, â€Å"several studies have shown that children and parents tend to exhibit similar drinking practices, indicating that observational learning plays some role in later alcohol use† (Ellis Zucker, 1997, p. 222). Soberingly, Dawson, Goldstein, Chou, Ruan, and Grant (2008) demonstrate that â€Å"individuals who started drinking before 15 years of age were significantly more likely to experience the incidence of alcohol dependence and alcohol abuse in adulthood than those who delayed initiation of drinking until 18 or older† (p. 2155). The personality/intrapsychic model seeks a connection between the intrapsychic conflicts within an individual or personality traits such as impulsivity, with substance abuse (DiClemente, 2003, pp. 11-12). The compulsive/excessive behavior model links â€Å"addiction with ritualistic compulsive behaviors like repeated hand-washing or cleaning rituals† (DiClemente, 2003, p. 16). The conditioning/reinforcement model relies upon reinforcement theory to explain the etiology of addiction. For example, the  intermittent schedule of reinforcement allotted for slot machines assures addictive usage for many patrons (Tavares, Zilberman, El-Guebaly, 2003, p. 23). The current literature appears to repudiate the view that physiological dependence is the key element that determines whether a person has an addiction. Instead, the emphasis has become the psychological component that develops and maintains addiction. Ksir et al. (2009) reveal, â€Å"Psychological dependence, based on reinforcement, is increasingly accepted as the real driving force behind repeated drug use (p. 36). They indicated that tolerance and physical dependence do not play as a major role as psychological dependence (Ksir et al., 2009, p. 36). Yet, Roberts and Koob (1997) contend that addiction is the by-product of the dual processes of reinforcement and neuroadaptation. They explain, â€Å"Working together, these factors appear to motivate the initial, short-term (i.e., acute) response to a drug and the establishment of the long-term (i.e., chronic) craving for the drug that characterizes addiction† (p. 102). It has been argued that the five models of addiction described above do not address the etiology and the treatment strategy of the addiction in a comprehensive way. DiClemente (2003) asserts, â€Å"There is also no single developmental model or singular historical path that can explain acquisition of and recovery from addictions† (p. 19). For instance, the prevalent view concerning alcoholism coincides with the disease model â€Å"which someone either ‘has’ or does not have and which has an inevitable progression to more and more drinking, then the only acceptable treatment goal is total abstinence† (Ksir et al., 2009, p. 430). The etiological view directly impacts treatment as seen with Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) which subscribes to the disease model, having total abstinence as the goal (Ksir et al., 2009, p. 430). Evidence-based research also demonstrates effectiveness of psychosocial approaches and indicates that the disease model is too limited in its pe rspective and application (Miller, 1993, p. 132). Still, Miller (1993) contends, â€Å"Dispositional disease views have remained strangely intermingled with moralistic attitudes toward people who are alcoholic, seeing alcoholics as prone to lie and deny their problem (p. 131). Therefore, this researcher leans more toward a biopsychosocial model which allows for more of a comprehensive view of the etiology and an eclectic approach to treatment. That is, â€Å"a descriptive model based on continua of severity and an etiologic model encompassing host, agent, and environmental factors† (Miller, 1993, p. 135). Instead of viewing alcoholism as a disease like diabetes (you either have it or you dont), this researcher favors using the analogy of having hypertension which is â€Å"genetically influenced yet quite responsive to psychosocial factors† (Miller, 1993, p. 134). Concerning the â€Å"bio† part of the biopsychosocial view, Scripture seems to endorse certain aspects of the disease model. However, the sickness ultimately appears to be sin (Isaiah 1:5-6). That is, an addiction such as alcoholism is the symptom of the sin disease (Galatians 5:21). Jesus refers to the disease model as an illustration of humanitys dilemma and combines this â€Å"sin disease model† with what seems to be the moral model with the call to repentance—which is the treatment (Mark 2:17). The â€Å"psycho† coincides with where Scripture instructs believers to â€Å"renew† their minds, identifying the association between thought and behavior (Ephesians 4:23). The â€Å"social† element is observed in how Paul warns, â€Å"Do not be misled: ‘Bad company corrupts good character’† (1Corinthians 15:33 NLT). For example, a person ought not hang out at the bar, or he will most likely drink. The Scriptural etiological view of addiction begins with an individual’s concept of self, God, and other relationships. For example, an addict could be viewed as a person who is unwilling to come to terms with his inaccurate view of self, God, and other relationships. In contrast, a psychologically healthy person is someone who has an accurate understanding of self and does not focus on self. McMinn (1996) instructs that â€Å"To be healthy, we need to move beyond a preoccupation with self† (p. 46). An unhealthy self-concept produces detrimental results. At one extreme, Nebuchadnezzar’s inflated view of self led to blind rage and insanity (Daniel 3:18-19; 4:30-34). On the other side of the spectrum, McMinn (1996) described a man with a low view of self which brought forth destructive behaviors such as drinking alcohol excessively (p. 47). A healthy view of self does not cause a person  to be lifted up with pride nor to be brought down to a permanent condition o f wallowing in utter self-loathing. Isaiah developed a balanced sense of self when he gained an accurate vision of God. Isaiah’s encounter with God produced genuine brokenness, forgiveness, and a sense of godly competence to fulfill the high call of God (Isaiah 6:1-8). The primary element that contributed to Isaiah’s healthy sense of self was his open recognition of need. McMinn (1996) asserts that â€Å"there is only one way to spiritual health, and that requires us to recognize that we need God† (pp. 48-49). Therefore, people who have a healthy sense of self recognize their own spiritual poverty and desperate need for God. The subjective, experiential sensing of â€Å"need† for God is an appropriate craving or â€Å"thirst.† Jesus pointed to Himself as the only One who truly satisfy this thirst (John 4:13-14). Assessment A person who describes an egg as a two-fold object composed of shell and egg white is missing the yolk, therefore lacking the complete definition. Similarly, clinicians who do not include spiritual assessment in gathering data will lack a holistic, â€Å"whole person† perspective of their clients. For example, Hodge (2005) asserts that â€Å"human beings are an integrated entity, consisting of body, soul, and spirit† (p. 316). This triune understanding of a human being’s composition is consistent with a biblical worldview (1Thessalonians 5:23). Still, it is not solely Christian clinicians who recognize the need to include a client’s spiritual background within the counseling setting. Hodge (2006) reveals, â€Å"Growing consensus exists that spiritual assessment is an important aspect of holistic service provision† (p. 317). Moreover, the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO), which is the largest health care accrediting body in the United States, â€Å"now requires the administration of spiritual assessment† (p. 317). A majority of clients have also expressed the desire to incorporate spirituality within the therapeutic setting (Hodge, 2006, p. 317). Spirituality is frequently at the core of how clients develop their worldview and coping skills (Hodge, 2005, p. 314). This understanding is vital for developing effective strategies with clients addicted to alcohol and drugs. Comprehensive, qualitative spiritual assessment methods include spiritual histories, spiritual lifemaps, spiritual genograms, spiritual ecomaps, and spiritual ecograms. Spiritual histories describe a format that uses questions â€Å"to explore spiritual and religious themes in the context of an empathic dialogue† (Hodge, 2001, p. 205). For example, the counselor presents open-ended questions with a spiritual theme to encourage clients to verbally share their spiritual narrative or story. Examples of questions a clinician may use include â€Å"When and in what ways do you feel close to the Divine?† and â€Å"How is God involved in your problems?† Two other assessment tools commonly used to identify the severity of alcohol problems are â€Å"the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) and the CAGE. These instruments are listed in the NIAAA Guide and are available in computerized versions† (Hester Miller, 2006, p. 37). These and other screening tools offer benefits such as providing â€Å"personalized feedback to clients in a timely and visually engaging manner† as well as â€Å"specific recommendations for change, based on the results of the assessment and other empirical evidence (Hester Miller, 2006, p. 37). Corresponding to the transtheoretical model (TTM), â€Å"a 12-item Readiness to Change scale has been developed as an efficient measure of three stages from the transtheoretical model: precontemplation, contemplation, and action† (Hester Miller, 2003, p. 100). Diagnosis Before a mechanic can fix a car with engine trouble, he first must identify the problem. Likewise, appropriate diagnosis precedes effective counseling. According to the American Psychiatric Association (APA) (2000), the DSM-IV-TR describes the diagnosis for 303.90 Alcohol Dependence as â€Å"indicated by evidence of tolerance or symptoms of Withdrawal. Especially if associated with a history of withdrawal, physiological dependence is an indication of a more severe clinical course overall† (p. 213). The diagnosis of 305.00 Alcohol Abuse â€Å"requires fewer symptoms and, thus, may be less severe than Dependence and is only diagnosed once the absence of Dependence is established† (APA, 2000, p. 214). Instead of being viewed categorically, that is, either a person has an  alcohol disorder or not, researchers suggest that problems or addictions be viewed as being in different dimensional phases. This perspective corresponds to the psychosocial problem theory. Maddux and Winstead (2008) explain, â€Å"Psychosocial problem theory sees the dimensional responses as the very problems for which people need help, and dimensional measures as sufficient to evaluate, communicate about, and remedy them† (p. 143). The criticism that disorder theory has received is because â€Å"disorder theory prescribes shifting the focus from concrete problem dimensions to abstract mental disorders† (Maddux Winstead, 2008, p. 143). This is not to say that categorizing disorders does not have benefits. Vieta and Suppes (2008) expound, Dichotomies are useful for education, communication, and simplification; unfortunately, simplicity is useful, but untrue, whereas complexity is true, but useless. In clinical practice, we may use current classifications, such as DSM-IV, as categorical backgrounds that may help in establishing treatment and prognosis (p. 165). Consequences Researchers have demonstrated that â€Å"alcohol use can increase adolescents’ exposure to risky situations, such as driving while intoxicated, engaging in unprotected sex, and confronting violent exchanges† (Hester Miller, 2003, p. 83). Price and Emshoff (1997) reveal, â€Å"Children of alcoholics (COAs) are at increased risk for a wide range of behavioral and emotional problems, including addiction to alcohol and other drugs (AODs), depression, anxiety, school failure, and delinquency† (p. 241). A major reason for the higher risk of problems in COA’s is because â€Å"cross-generational transmission of alcoholism increases in likelihood to the extent that alcoholism invades the family system and disrupts the enactment of family rituals; that is, patterns of behavior that give identity and meaning to the family† (Jacob, 1992, p. 323). Hester and Miller (2003) assert, â€Å"Persons drinking three to four drinks per day have a two- to threefold risk for accidents, stroke, liver disease, cancer, and hypertension† (p. 65). Scripture asserts that â€Å"there is a way that seems right to a man, But its end is the way of death† (Proverbs 14:12 NKJV). Intervention Strategies Researchers assert that clinicians working with clients addicted to alcohol need to â€Å"become more comfortable with†¦brief therapy intervention technique, and motivational interviewing† (Hester Miller, 2003, p. 69). Motivational interviewing, which â€Å"aims to increase a patient’s motivation to change, has been found effective in controlled clinical trials† (McCarty, Edmundson, Hartnett, 2006, p. 8). The stages of change according to the transtheoretical model (TTM) include precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance (DiClemente, 2003, p. 27). MI is helpful in addressing the client’s ambivalence and tipping the decisional balance toward change (Hester Miller, 2003, p. 65). For example, MI has helped motivate clients to move from the precontemplation stage to the contemplation stage or from the preparation stage to the action stage. Four key factors that define MI include expressing empathy, developing discrepancy, rolling with resistance, and supporting self-efficacy (Miller Rollnick, 2002, pp. 36-41). For example, the counselor conveys acceptance by incorporating listening skills such as reflective listening, paraphrasing, and clarifying. Empathy and acceptance promote an atmosphere conducive for change. To develop discrepancy, the client â€Å"rather than the counselor† is led to â€Å"present the arguments for change† (Miller Rollnick, 2002, p. 39). Empathy is characteristic of the person-centered approach and is considered â€Å"the most powerful determinant of client progress in therapy† (Corey, 2005, p. 173). Empathy disarms clients’ defenses and promotes trust within the therapeutic relationship. Empathy â€Å"involves demonstrating the act of listening to the subject and understanding the individual’s situation and the emotional reaction to it with the purpose of establishing a basic trust relationship† (Regini, 2004, p. 2). Without it, there will be no change. In fact, research has shown that the model of therapy is not what determines the effectiveness of therapy, but the quality of the therapeutic relationship. McKergow and Korman (2009) assert, â€Å"More important are the therapeutic alliance as seen by the client, allegiance of the therapist to their model of choice, placebo effects, and general therapist competence† (p. 46). Person-centered theory presumes that the quality of the relationship between the therapist and client is all that determines change (Kirschenbaum, 2004, pp. 116-117). Research has shown that the key predictor in achieving a successful outcome in treatment is a strong therapeutic relationship between the clinician and client (Jennings Skovhalt, 1999, p. 4). If clinicians do not establish trust in the first phase of the working alliance with their client, their client will be less likely to proceed to the next level that includes â€Å"shared responsibility for working out treatment goals† (Horvath Luborsky, 1993, p. 563). Clinton and Ohlschalger (2002) insist that trust is vital â€Å"†¦for without it the client too easily backs away from the difficult challenges inherent to change† (p. 205). Trust is established when the client perceives the counselor as caring, sensitive, sympathetic, and helpful (Horvath Luborsky, p. 564). Patients who do improve with medication often become less consistent with taking their medications over time. A strong alliance has been shown to help in this area. Strauss and Johnson (2006) reveal that â€Å"patients who reported stronger alliances with their providers reported more positive attitudes about medication and stigma. (p. 220). Spiritual, psychological, and emotional health is interwoven within the fabric of loving relationships. The author of Hebrews encourage believers to â€Å"consider one another in order to stir up love and good works, not forsaking the assembling of ourselves together, as is the manner of some, but exhorting one another, and so much the more as you see the Day approaching† (Hebrews 10:24-25 NKJV). There are necessary times for solitude but disaster awaits people who completely cut themselves off from authentic relationships. Solomon instructs, â€Å"A man who isolates himself seeks his own desire, he rages against all wise judgment† (Proverbs 18:1 NKJV). Therefore, clients are encouraged to join a small group Bible study, a men’s group, a women’s group, a cancer support group, or another group conducive to a client’s need. Solutions-focused brief therapy (SFBT) employs rapport-building techniques such as active listening. The counselor seeks to understand what the client wants through actively listening and echoes back the past, present, and  future desires of the client. In addition, active listening entails paraphrasing, summarizing, and asking questions. SFBT has been useful in walk-in sessions. Clinical interviewing techniques are â€Å"designed to move clients away from focusing primarily on the problem and toward a focus on solutions. Some of these ideas include attending to exceptions to the problem (already existing periods when the problem is not occurring)† (Slive, McElheran, Lawson, 2008, p. 14). Other treatment strategies for clients struggling with alcohol dependence and abuse include psycho-education, family therapy, behavior modification, detoxification, and 12-step programs such as Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and Narcotics Anonymous (NA) (Kanel, 2007, p. 176). Hester and Miller (2003) demonstrate, â€Å"Patients attending AA were significantly more likely to be abstinent than those not attending† (p. 182). They also provide a summary of treatment strategies by order of their effectiveness such as coping skills treatment (CST), cue exposure treatment (CET), community reinforcement approach (CRA), and community reinforcement and family training (CRAFT) (Miller Hester, 2003, pp. 218, 229-232, 237-240). Brewer (2008) presents an integrative Christian counseling grid called METAMORPH. He delineates that â€Å"METAMORPH integrative Christian counseling grid represents an eclectic approach to counseling that seeks to responsibly draw upon a plethora of counseling theories within the context of a Christian worldview† (Brewer, 2008). Truth drawn out from an individual’s life has the tendency to be more easily apprehended and embraced (Proverbs 20:5). For example, Brewer (2008) integrates choice theory techniques with exploratory questions such as: â€Å"What do you want? What are you doing to get what you want? How is it working for you? Is it the right thing to do?† When Adam and Eve were hiding in the garden, God asked them â€Å"Where are you?† God knew where they were, but He wanted them to become self-aware and to consider turning back to Him (Genesis 3:9-13). In like manner, Jesus asked His disciples important questions (Matthew 16:13, 15). Concerning pharmacotherapy, prescribing medications for mental disorders has been a controversial practice especially in Christian circles. This  researcher has been quite wary in the past about any type of drug therapy, because God has â€Å"given to us all things that pertain to life and godliness† through His divine power (2Peter 1:3a NKJV). In addition, Scripture is sufficient to help believers become complete and mature, â€Å"equipped for every good work† (2Timothy 3:17b NKJV). The two previous biblical references did not include mention of the need for medications. Yet, it is interesting that soon after, Paul describes one of the requirements for godly leadership as â€Å"not given to wine,† which means to not abuse alcohol or to not be addicted to wine. Two chapters later he instructs Timothy to personally use wine for a medicinal purpose (1Timothy 3:3a; 5:23 NKJV). This researcher currently holds the view that certain drugs including medications for brain chemical imbalances were given through God’s guidance to benefit humanity. However, just as there is a danger that wine may be abused and lead to tragic consequences, these medications have the potential of being abused. Clinton and Ohlschlager (2002) teach, â€Å"They [psychiatric medications] have tremendous potential to help people with problems that can destroy their lives psychologically, medically, and spiritually. However, they must be used with care and at the discretion of someone who is skilled in their administration† (p. 152). Drug therapies address the neurobiological dysfunctions which impair emotions and behavioral functioning. Medications are not necessarily the â€Å"silver bullet† in solving all the issues which challenge individuals any more than wine was the cure-all for Timothy’s problems. Rather, they may help promote enough emotional stability for a client to be able to receive input regarding other issues. An example of a medication that has been successful in the treatment of alcohol addiction is naltrexone, which â€Å"is an opiate-antagonist medication. Clinical trials suggest that naltrexone contributes to reductions in the frequency of drinking and severity of relapse among alcohol-dependent patients† (McCarty et al., 2006, p. 7). Personal Application As the rudder steers a ship, a counselor’s theory guides the counseling process. This researcher believes that a comprehensive counseling theory begins with a biblical worldview that evaluates psychological contributions,  human nature, and the systems that shape the human personality, and view of addiction through the lens of Scripture. Psychology often limits its focus to the study of the soul. The word â€Å"psychology† is a combination of the words -ology and psyche. The suffix -ology means â€Å"the study of.† The Greek word psyche in the Bible means â€Å"a living soul,† and it is also defined as â€Å"the seat of the feelings, desires, affections† (Blue Letter Bible, 2010). Therefore, psychology is the study of one of God’s works, the human soul. Theology derives meaning from His word, the Bible. Averbeck (2006) proposes that the â€Å"double knowledge† of psychology (knowledge of the human person) and biblical theology (the knowledge of God) is necessary. He expounds, â€Å"Neither one is complete in itself; both need the other†¦True wisdom is bringing the knowledge of God and people together in the midst of the mess which we are and in which we live. This is what the Bible and counseling are really all about† (p. 111). Therefore, this researcher seeks to integrate theology and psychology into his understanding of addiction. This researcher works in a psychiatric hospital setting. Alcohol dependence and abuse in particular is common within the patient population. Jeannette Sapp, a clinician at the hospital discloses, â€Å"Alcohol is the drug of choice for many patients because it is available, legal, and relatively inexpensive. Many patients self-medicate their particular disorder† (personal communication, February 16, 2010). The stages of change are going to become hospital policy concerning patient treatment. The supervisor has been encouraging clinicians to consider the specific stage of change each patient they are working with is in. This is a necessary step since each stage of change has different tasks which require appropriate corresponding interventions (DiClemente, 2003, p. 240). DiClemente (2003) asserts, The best way to mirror the process of change is to have a dynamic treatment protocol that can respond to being stuck at various stages as well as to movement through the stages of change (p. 250). It is helpful to understand that â€Å"addictions are understood as learned habits that once established become difficult to extinguish even in the face of dramatic, and, at times, numerous negative consequences† (Jenkins, n. d.). Since addictions are learned habits which develop through  the stages of change, they can be unlearned and replaced with healthy and helpful habits as the individual progresses through the stages of change. As applied to believers, Christians are to deal with ambivalence concerning the â€Å"tug of war† between sin and the new nature, and to move along the stages, becoming transformed into the image of Christ from glory to glory by God’s Spirit (Romans 7:7; 2Corinthians 3:18). Clinton and Ohlschlager (2002) clarify, â€Å"The effective Christian clinician will be a principled, biblically informed, and responsible eclectic who knows how to fit the right therapy with the right client at the right time and the right stage of living† (p. 176). Christian counselors are to model the divine Counselor. Jesus, the â€Å"Wonderful, Counselor† (Isaiah 9:6b), has all the qualities for promoting effective client outcomes: genuine compassion, ability to comfort, ability to challenge, and a provider of sanctuary for the client. Jesus said that â€Å"everyone who is perfectly trained will be like his teacher† (Luke 6:40b). Christian counselors know they will become like the best counseling teacher as they learn from the Master Himself (2Corinthians 3:18). Jennings and Skovhalt (1999) identified and defined the key characteristics of master therapists. They also gave credit to studies that describe effective therapists who have attributes such as compassion, sensitivity, and commitment to their clients’ well-being. These qualities describe love. Clinton and Ohlschlager (2002) insist that â€Å"the most important counseling tool is you† (p. 67). Tripp (2002) insists, â€Å"God never intended us to simply be objects of His love. We are also called to be instruments of that love in the lives of others† (p. 18). The goal of this writer is to become a competent and effective counselor. The starting point of reflecting His love is allowing Jesus to be the â€Å"first love.† The AACC code of ethics (2004) which states, â€Å"Christian counselors are dedicated to Jesus Christ as their ‘first love’† (p. 5), for He alone can truly equip and empower a person to be a tool filled with the agape love everyone needs (John 15:5; Acts 1:8). References American Association of Christian Counselors (AACC), (2004). AACC code of ethics. Forest, VA: AACC. American Psychiatric Association (APA) (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders text revision (4th ed.). (DSM-IV-TR). Arlington, VA: Author. Averbeck, R. (2006). Creation and corruption, redemption and wisdom: A biblical theology foundation for counseling psychology. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 25(2), 111-126. Blue Letter Bible (2010). Strong’s exhaustive concordance of the bible definitions for Hebrew and Greek words. Retrieved February 24, 2010 from http://www.blueletterbible.org/ Brewer, G. R. (2008). METAMORPH integrative Christian counseling grid. Retrieved February 25, 2010 from http://bb7.liberty.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab= coursesurl=/bin/common/course.pl?course_id=_568125_session_key= Ljv71oy4g41C9Q43R34dr24n53q99DWq35Qb7rTkBCp Bufford, R.K. (1997). Consecrated counseling: Reflections on the distinctive of Christian counseling. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 25, 111-122. Clinton, T., Ohlschlager, G. (Eds.). (2002). Competent Christian counseling: Foundations practice of compassionate soul care. Colorado Springs, CO: WaterBrook Press. Corey, G. (2005). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. Dawson, D., Goldstein, R., Chou, S., Ruan, W., Grant, B. (2008). Age at first drink and the first incidence of adult-onset DSM-IV alcohol use disorders. Alcoholism: Clinical Experimental Research, 32(12), 2149-2160. DiClemente, C. (2003). Addiction and change: How addictions develop and addicted people recover. New York, NY : The Guilford Press. Ellis, D., Zucker, R. (1997). The role of family influences in development and risk. Alcohol Health Research World, 21(3), 218-227. Feldman, R. (2008). Development across the life span. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Hester, R., Miller, J. (2006). Computer-based tools for diagnosis and treatment of alcohol problems. Alcohol Research Health, 29(1), 36-40. Hester, R., Miller, W. (2003). Handbook of alcoholism treatment approaches: Effective alternatives (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Hodge, D. (2001). A review of major qualitative methods and a new framework for assessing spirituality. Social Work, 46(3), 203-214. Hodge, D. (2006). A template for spiritual assessment:  A revi ew of the JCAHO requirements and guidelines for implementation. Social Work, 51(4), 317-326. Hodge, D. (2005). Developing a spiritual assessment toolbox: A discussion of the strengths and limitations of five different assessment methods. Health Social Work, 30(4), 314-323. Hodge, D. (2005). Spiritual assessment in marital and family therapy: A methodological framework for selecting from among six qualitative assessment tools. Journal of Marital Family Therapy, 31(4), 341-356. Horvath, A., Luborsky, L. (1993). The role of the therapeutic alliance in psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61(4), 561-573. Jacob, T. (1992). Family studies of alcoholism. Journal of Family Psychology, 5(3/4), 319-338. Jenkins, D. (n. d.). DiClemente Addiction-change. COUN711. Lynchburg, VA: Liberty University. Jennings, L., Skovhalt, T. M. (1999). The cognitive, emotional, and relational characteristics of master therapists. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46, 3-11. Kanel, K. (2007). A guide to crisis intervention (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. Kirschenbaum, H. (2004). Carl Rogers’s life and work: An assessment on the 100th anniversary of his birth. Journal of Counseling Development, 82(1), 116-124. Ksir, C., Hart, C, Oakley, R. (2009). Drugs, society human behavior (13th ed.). New York, NY : McGraw-Hill. LaBerge, R. (2009) Addiction seen as a societal problem, not an individual one. CCPA Monitor, 16(3), 13-13. Maddux, J., Winstead, B. (Eds.). (2008). Psychopathology: Foundations for a contemporary understanding (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge/Taylor Francis Group. McCarty, D., Edmundson, E., Hartnett, T. (2006). Charting a path between research and practice in alcoholism treatment. Alcohol Research and Health, 29(1), 1-10. McKergow, M. Korman, H. (2009). Inbetween—neither inside nor outside: The radical simplicity of solution-focused brief therapy. Journal of Systemic Therapies, 28(2), 34-49. McMinn, M. (1996). Psychology, theology, and spirituality in Christian counseling. Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House. Miller, W. (1993). Alcoholism: Toward a better disease model. Psychology of addictive behaviors, 7(2), 129-136. Miller, W. (1995). Toward a biblical perspective on drug use. Journal of Ministry in Addiction Recovery, 2(2), 77-86. Miller, W., Rollnick, S. (2002). Motivational interviewing: Preparing people for change (2nd Ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Mounce, W. (1993). The analytical lexicon to the Greek new testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House. NIAA (2010). National institute on alcohol abuse and alcoholism: Traffic crashes, traffic crash fatalities, and alcohol-related traffic crash fatalities, United States, 1982-2 004. Retrieved January 19, 2010, from http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/Resources/ DatabaseResources/ QuickFacts/TrafficCrashes/crash01.htm NIAA (2010). National institute on alcohol abuse and alcoholism: Estimated economic costs of alcohol in the United States, 1992 and 1998. 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Psychiatry Research, 145, 215-223. Tavares, H., Zilberman, M., El-Guebaly, N. (2003). Are there cognitive and behavioural approaches specific to the treatment of pathological gambling? Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 48(1), p22-27. Treatment Improvement Exchange (TIE) (2010). Appendix c: Addiction counseling competencies. Retrieved February 27, 2010, from http://tie.samhsa.gov/ Tripp, P. (2002). Instruments in the Redeemer’s hands: People in need of change helping people in need of change. Phillipsburg, NJ: P R Publishing Company. Van Der Walde, H., Urgenson, F., Weltz, S., Hanna, F. (2002). Women and alcoholism: A biopsychosocial perspective and treatment approaches. Journal of Counseling Development, 80(2), 145-154. Vieta, E., Suppes, T. (2008). Bipolar II disorder: arguments for and against a distinct diagnostic entity. Bipolar Disorders, 10, 163-170. Vine, W., Bruce, F. F. (Ed.) (1981). Vine’s expository dictionary of old and new testament words. Old Tappan, NJ: Fleming H. 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Pestel Analysis On Petroleum Industry Economics Essay

Pestel Analysis On Petroleum Industry Economics Essay ABSTRACT: In the history of the mankind, the need of resources was the most important factor for political, technological, economic, social evolutions. In modern times need of energy resources become more significant than other industries who were more important during the past like the production of wood, stone, horse breeding, productions of ships, weapons, constructions of buildings and even gold production. The primary energy source is represented by petroleum, commonly known as oil. Petroleum is most used in transport, energy, petrochemical, agriculture and other industries that need oil products in the production of goods. Example: Metallurgy. In this paper it will be present the need of a macro-environmental analysis at the petroleum industry and the external factors that have a powerful influence on this industry. KEYWORD: environment, factors, oil, resource, PESTEL analysis, influence JEL CLASSIFICATIO: L71, L72, N01, N10, N30 1. INTRODUCTION In pre-industrial revolution time, oil was used for making and maintaining the fire, in the blacksmith, in constructions and in the period of war as a weapon (fire traps, fire projectiles of bows or siege engines and even a component of the substance used for medieval flamethrower named Greek fire, which was used in naval warfare). With the development of electricity and transport, the need for the oil rise very much and surpasses the need for coal or natural gas, which were used for the same purpose. Petroleum (oil) industry represents one of the most important components of the energy industry who is like the circulatory system of the human body to the modern economy. Oil industry is divided in: upstream (exploration, development, extraction of oil and natural gas), downstream (transport by oil tanks or pipelines, refineries, retailers and consumers). PESTEL analysis represents of the most important method used to analysis external environment within an organization or an industry sector (Moldoveanu, 2007). Necessity of using the PESTEL analysis on the petroleum industry is represented by the important role that this industry has on the economic, political and social systems around the world. 2. IMPORTANT In this paper, I want to show the importance of the external factors of macro-environment on petroleum industry and complementary industries. I would use PESTEL analysis because it responds to the questions: Are only political, economic and social factors that influence the petroleum industry? The oil industry by could be influenced by the modification of a factor that has no direct contact with industry? 3. PESTEL Analysis on Petroleum Industry PESTEL analysis is used by organizations for identifying the factors of external environment of the market that could influence the organization and entire industry. PESTEL analysis is formed by six macro-environment group of factors: political factors, economic, social, technological factors, environmental factors and legal factors. Other authors add new group factors, named international (Moldoveanu, 2007), but I dont want to split to add this factors because all PESTEL groups of factors contain both national and international description. Macro-environmental factors are less influenced by companies than micro-environmental factors (customers, employee, suppliers, shareholders, media and competitors), but companies of oil industry can have bigger influence of macro-environment than companies from other industries. This fact is resulted because of the need for energy resources for political, economic, social, technological, environmental and legal activities. 3.1. Political factors Political factors are represented by the influence of a political entity (party, country, organizations or other type of faction) on the national level, regional level or international level. Most of the countries consider that the oil industry (upstream and downstream) is a strategic point in political, economic and social needs of a country, because this industry has a great influence on transport capacity, energy production, industrial production, chemical production, agriculture and social welfare. The energy independence is a priority objective of every country who wants to be free from a political blackmail from other countries or international organization. The most influent organization in oil production is OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) who has more than 42, 8% of world oil production, other considerable producers of oil or of another substituent, products are United States of America, Countries of European Union, Russia, China, Canada and Brazil. T he consumers who have a great influence on the oil markets are United States of America, China and western European Union countries. For mutual gain, some countries make trade agreement for exchanging of energy resources for money, technology other resources or even protection. A powerful influence over the production of oil and the price is made by instable situation from the Middle East, where every conflict could disturb oil production and transport, resulting in the rising of oil price. Another region that has a great influence upon the petroleum market is ex-soviet space, where disputes are likely resolved by energetic and political blackmail. The policy of foreign oil independence of the United States diminished energetic resource imports, because of that in Alaska were build new exploitations of oil or natural gas and development of substitutes. The austerity programs of European Union have reduced the need for fuels, because of declining of the economic activities and the so cial welfare. The economic crisis made the need for cheap fuels became a priority for the major players of the global stage. Because of this situation, many territorial disputes reappear between countries for oil and natural-gas reserves like: the Falkland Islands dispute between United Kingdom and Argentina; the Arctic plateau dispute between United States of America, Canada, Iceland, Norway and Russia; the Senkaku islands dispute between China, Taiwan and Japan; the South China Sea dispute between numerous Asian countries. National politic factors are represented by grade of authority of the state, political parties, non-governmental organizations and in some cases different factions (rebels, paramilitary entities). Grade of authority of the state represent the power that have the government upon the society, economy, technology, laws. The authority of the state is higher in authoritarian states like dictatorships, theocracies, non-constitutional monarchies, tribal society and is lower in democratic republics and constitutional monarchies were the political power is given by people of the country to the elected politicians. Political parties influence the petroleum industries by imposing state strategy for electoral or economic gains. The non-governmental organizations influence the oil market by promoting anti-pollution campaigns or liberalization of the fuel market. Paramilitary factions use influence on oil industry for blackmailing or for imposing some fees in territories that are controlled by the m, cutting the transport of oil for political gains. Oil companies can have influence on political factors in regions or countries were oil in primary source of making income and in regions or countries were the energy resource are scarce and attracting additional one is need for good function of economic activities. In modern economic, because of the globalization, the state canà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢t protect the external market like in mercantile system(Strange S., 1996), resulting that companies can occupy new markets or acquire new resources alone. 3.2. Economic factors Economic factors are represented by the: influences of the supply and demand on the oil price; influences of the supply or demand of the complementary goods; influence of the supply and demand of substitute resources; the USD exchange rate (petrol-dollar policy); the price of the oil barrel on the important stock exchanges; economic situation on regional and global stages; value of the known reserves, interest rate for financing; value of stock market indexes (DOW Jones, StandardPoor). The demand for fuels is influenced by variation of transport activities (road, rail, aviation, naval) that represent almost 60 %(OPEC,2011), petrochemical industry, other industries, agriculture and energy production. Variation of need for road transport activities is influenced by the number of the auto vehicles used by population or organizations; the earns of every car owner, the frequency of using his own car, the customer culture for fuels effect on the environment, the road infrastructure, seasons, touring activities. Rail transport is represented by trains that use fuels for transport; this kind of transport is used in developing countries that have big oil production. Aviation is one of the transport sectors that grown very rapidly, representing 6% of total oil demand (OPEC,2011), two thirds been represented by OECD (Organization For Economic Co-Operation And Development). Oil demand for naval transport is represented in big proportion by cargo ships that transport goods from developing countries (goods and resources producers) to developed countries (services producers). Petrochemical industry represents approximately 10% of total oil demand and the products that are produced by this industry are: plastics, synthetic fibers, synthetic rubber, detergents, paints, adhesives, aerosols, insecticides, pharmaceuticals and others. Others industry sectors which demand oil or complementary products from oil are iron and steel industry, cement industry, auto vehicles industry, naval industry, mining, construction and many others. In agriculture demand for oil and complementary products are for a wide range of activities like farming, pasturing, animal husbandry, fishing, hunting, beekeeping and many others. Table 1. Vehicle and passenger car ownership in 2008 Name Population Millions Auto vehicles Millions Cars Millions Cars per 1000 1 North America 457.7 299.9 265.5 580.1 2 West Europe 542.2 274.2 236.0 435.3 3 Pacific OECD 200.8 111.2 85.9 427.8 OECD 1,200.6 685.3 587.4 489.2 4 Latin America 421.7 76.2 59.7 141.5 5 Middle East and Africa 824.1 35.0 22.4 27.2 6 South Asia 1,595.4 24.9 16.6 10.4 7 South-East Asia 641.5 53.1 33.7 52.5 8 China 1,337.4 49.5 36.0 26.9 9 OPEC 384.8 39.8 28.7 68.5 Developing countries 5,205.0 278.4 197.0 37.9 10 Russia 142.0 34.8 29.5 207.8 11 Other transition economies 198.8 38.2 34.7 174.6 Transition economies 340.7 73.0 64.2 188.4 World 6,746.3 1,036.7 1848.6 125.8 SOURCE: adapted from World Oil Outlook 2011, p. 80 Table 2. Aviation oil demand prediction Name People that travel with planes Millions in 2008 People that will travel with planes Millions 1 North America 1.7 2.0 2 West Europe 1.1 1.3 3 Pacific OECD 0.4 0.6 OECD 3.3 3.8 4 Latin America 0.2 0.3 5 Middle East and Africa 0.2 0.3 6 South Asia 0.1 0.3 7 South-East Asia 0.5 0.8 8 China 0.3 0.7 9 OPEC 0.3 0.4 Developing countries 1.5 2.7 10 Russia 0.3 0.4 11 Other transition economies 0.1 0.1 Transition economies 0.3 0.5 World 5.1 7.0 SOURCE: adapted from World Oil Outlook 2011, p. 95 The financial system has influenced the petroleum industry in 2008 very much, making oil price to drop from history peak price of 141 USD per barrel, in July, to 33 USD per barrel only at the end of the year. This fact is explained by the beginning of financial crisis that influenced negatively the income of the companies and of the population, making the companies and people to cut the cost, or to become insolvent, resulting to diminish of economic activities across the world who make the demand for transport to fall that making the fall of oil price. 3.3. Social factors Social factors are represented by demography, culture, ethnic structure, religion structure, inter-cultural relation, structure of family, ideological view, literacy, urbanization, income distribution, migration, use of communication technology, cultural view to the different products. All around the world, do not exist a culture that is against oil exploitation and for using the oil products, most of the population saw the oil industry like a necessity for development and welfare, but are segments within the population who see the oil industry as an important factor of pollution of the environment. Population which has culture of the protection of the natural environment is located in developed countries, because not need a high rate of developing. In the countries were populations are more friendly with environment; government imposes pollution fees and pollution reduction laws and norms to petroleum industry, and complementary industries. Many companies which make complementary products, like cars, invest in reduction of fuel consumptions or start to produce hybrid products. In the developing countries, populations from see the need for development and growing rate of welfare more important than environment protection; they accept the pollution like a cost for e conomic growth. Table 3. Population level and growth forecast Name Population Millions 2010 2035 1 North America 466 555 2 West Europe 547 576 3 Developed countries of Pacific 201 194 Developed countries 1,215 1,325 4 Latin America 431 516 5 Middle East and Africa 882 1,422 6 South Asia 1,644 2,144 7 South East Asia 657 809 8 China 1,354 1,462 Developing countries 5,372 6,939 9 Russia 141 126 10 Other economy in transition(Eastern Europe and Ex-soviet space) 199 201 Economies in transition 340 327 World 6,927 8,590 Source: adapted from Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, http://esa.un.org/unpp/ panel_population.htm and World Oil Outlook 2011, p. 38 In table above, Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat forecast that the population of developed countries will have a smaller population growth then the developing countries, which will rise from 5372 millions people to 6939 millions people (higher rise been in south Asia) and countries that are in transition will have a population in decrease, resulting in a growth of the population from 6,927 millions in 2010 to 8,590 in 2035. The populations of developed countries that consume most of the fuels and energy, in these days, are growing slow and are ageing very rapidly, resulting in diminish of the need for oil in future. However, the growth of the population, in developing countries, will impose the rise of the energy resources for growing transport, petrochemical industries and electricity production needs. So de results will be that the need from developing countries for oil will surpass the reducing of need from developed countries, so the demand for oil will grow. Urbanization is another factor that influences the need for energy, because urban population consumes more energy resources for transportation, electric energy or petrochemicals (plastics, fibers) than rural population. Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat forecast that in 2035 the urban population will grow with 50,69% and rural will decrease with 4,17%. In developing countries growing of urban population will be larger than developed countries with almost 1432 millions. Rural population in developed countries will decrease with almost 16 milions and in developing countries will remain almost the same. Table 4. Population forecast by urban/rural classification Name 2010 2035 Millions Millions Urban Rural Urban Rural 1 North America 384 83 488 67 2 West Europe 398 149 461 115 3 Developed countries of Pacific 145 56 154 40 Developed countries 928 287 1102 222 4 Latin America 362 69 462 55 5 Middle East and Africa 353 529 751 671 6 South Asia 500 1,144 944 1,200 7 South East Asia 284 373 455 354 8 China 636 717 949 513 Developing countries 2394 2978 4001 2938 9 Russia 103 38 99 27 10 Other economy in transition(Eastern Europe and Ex-soviet space) 116 83 134 67 Economies in transition 219 121 232 95 World 3541 3385 5336 3244 Source: adapted from Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, http://esa.un.org/unpp/ panel_population.htm and World Oil Outlook 2011, p. 43 Petroleum industry has a great impact on social welfare, because it fuels the transports and electricity production, activities that have a great impact on human development, production of goods and services and communication. 3.4. Technological factors Technological factors are represented by technologies, techniques and methods that influence the activities within an organization (Palmer A. Hartley B., 2009). The technological factors could influence an organization from inside the industry, by making the need to acquire the last technologies (by buying equipment), techniques and methods (by hiring a trained human resource in new techniques or train the old human resource with the new techniques and methods). Once acquired, these factors will influence the organization from inside. In oil industry, the technologies are used exploration, in exploitation, transport( roads, oil tanks, pipelines), in refineries, in storage, in promoting marketing strategies, in selling; in researching and development of the brand-new products or in upgrading the old ones, in reducing the time of production the losses from the production process. Secondary technologies and techniques could be used in environment protection, workers protection, in impr oving the efficiency of the management by using of new software and hardware, improving the maintaining and repairing activities. All these factors could be used against an oil company, if a rival company owns them like a competitive advantage. Because of that will result in a perpetual race (Nicolescu Verboncu, 2009) for acquiring the news and the most efficient technologies, techniques and methods that will have the results of takings a greater share from downstream market and a greater share from the upstream market, to acquire more oil reserves or to impose the price. Technologies that influence the oil company from outside the oil industry can influence entire oil industry (upstream and downstream). These technologies are represented by the complementary products and substitutable products. The complementary products influence the demand for oil by developing technologies that will reduce the consumption of oil products or replaced them with other a substitutable product. The complementary products are represented by auto vehicles, airplanes, ships, petrochemicals (plastics, synthetic fibers, synthetic rubber, detergents, paints, adhesives, aerosols, insecticides and pharmaceuticals), energy, agricultural product or other industrial products. The substitutable products are represented by-products of the rest of energy industries. These industries are: the coal industry, natural-gas industry (which includes the new shale gas industry), nuclear industry, biomass industry, hydro industry and other renewable-energy industry (solar, wind, geothermal). Like the many coal and gas industries, the oil industry in life phase of maturity, because development of the new technologies became very hard and oil reserves are half depleted. Table 5. Forecast of world supply of primary energy level mboe/d (equivalent of a million barrels per day) Growth % per year Fuel share % 2008 2035 2008à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬35 2008 2035 Oil 80.6 101 0.8 35.2 28.4 Coal 66.6 101.5 1.6 29.1 28.5 Gas 52 90 2 22.7 25.3 Nuclear 14.3 22.5 1.7 6.2 6.3 Hydro 5.5 10.3 2.3 2.4 2.9 Biomass 8.5 20.3 3.3 3.7 5.7 Other renewables 1.5 10.4 7.5 0.6 2.9 Total 229 355.9 1.6 100 100 Sources: adapted from World Oil Outlook 2011, p. 50 The analysis from table above will result that the need for primary energy will grow from 2008 to 2035 with 51%( from 229 mboe/d to 355,9 mboe/d) The fossil fuels (oil, gas, and coal) will decrease from 87%(199,2 mboe/d) to 82%(292,5 mboe/d) from the total of the energy supplies, but the oil will remain the most-used resource. Nuclear will almost double the production, but more use of atomic energy will be limited because of fear of nuclear disasters like Chernobyl and Fukushima. Biomass will grow with almost 240%, but the principal problem of this resource is that will compete with the need for food production, because plants, which made biomass, are using the same soil that is used in agriculture for cultivating the wheat and corn or pastures of domestic animals. Hydro will almost double in 25 years, but the great difficulty will be to find new efficient places for building hydro centrals, because most of the rivers will also have hydro central. Rest of renewable-energy production will grow will approximately seven times, from 2008 to 2035; the main issues of renewable energy are: investments are high in comparison with fossil fuels, efficiently is lower, in most of the world region renewable energy can be produced only in some seasons, and it has a dependence to weather conditions. 3.5. Environment factors Environment factors are represented by the geographical position, landform, climate, fauna, flora, rock structure and natural resource that are in case of petroleum companies represented by oil reserves. Geographic position influence the activity of oil companies because it defines the distances between exploitation, refiners and consumers (for example, oil from Middle East can be transported half the world, exploitation to refiners), or could influence the demand for oil because of transports, international trade and migration. Landform influences the difficulty of exploitation, transportation to the refiners and consumers; demand is influenced by the consumption of the fuel in heavy terrains. Climate influences the difficulty of oil exploitation in time of the cold season in north climates, or hot seasons of desert climate, demand for oil grown in winter because of low speed traffic or energy consumption. Flora and fauna influence cost oil exploitation because of existing of the oi l reserves in natural parks, or because of existing difficult access area because of vegetation and dangerous animals. Rocks structure made difficulties of exploration and exploitation oil. World oil reserves are estimated to 1481.526 billion barrels according to OPEC Annual Statistic Bulletin 2012. The biggest oil reserves are in Saudi Arabia, Canada, Iran, Kuwait, Arab Emirates, Venezuela Russia, Libya, Nigeria, United States of America, China, Qatar, Mexico, Algeria and India. These countries have own 95% of oil reserves. One specification of the environmental factors is represented by natural disasters: hurricanes, tornados, cyclones, snow storms, sand storms, extreme temperatures, earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruption that could make material loss and casualties, but could disturb economic activities. Economic activities that could be disturbed are road, rail, naval, air traffic, could decline the demand for unnecessary goods and raise the demand for the primary need goods l ike water, food, pharmaceutics, construction materials, fuels, clothes. Petroleum industry influences the natural environment because of pollution and capacity of changing from natural to artificial environment by fueling the developing of modern economy. Pollution is represented by fuel emission from uses of auto vehicles, airplanes, ships and emissions from refineries that produce fuels or other petrochemical products that have a great influence on climate changing. Other pollution events are represented by accidents that can happen in activities of exploration, exploitation, refining and transport, contaminating the water, air and soil with oil, fuels or wastes. 3.6. Legal factors Legal factors are represented by constitutions, laws, norms and regulations of the local authorities, governments, international institutions, international communities (European Union, the North American Free Trade Agreement, the African Union and the Association of South East Asian Nations). This factors influence the modalities of exploration, of exploitation, of the refiner, of transportation and of commercialization of oil and oil products. The legal factors also impose laws and regulations for pollution, social protection, work protection, work regulation, competition regulation, anti-trust regulation, consumer protection, international trade (trade agreements between nations or embargoes to some countries), subsidies, the taxes( like the excise rates for fuels and oil price or taxes and fees over profit to the energy companies). Table 6. Tax rate in comparison with price Country Oil price USD per liter Tax rate Tax United Kingdom 1.76 65.1% 1.15 Germany 1.53 66.3% 1.02 Italy 1.418 66.3% 0.94 France 1.49 63.7% 0.95 Japan 1.14 49.6% 0.57 Canada 0.90 33.3% 0.30 USA 0.75 16.0% 0.12 Source: Who get What from imported oil (2011) http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/publications/341.htm 4. CONCLUSION In conclusion, the importance of knowing the macro-environment on an industry such as important like petroleum industry is crucial in the modern economy, because these factors represent the opportunities and threats of this economic sector. Many specialists think that the change from fossil fuels to the renewable resources would resolve many of the problems and threats that the oil industry has. So the transition from oil to renewable resources should be faster, omitting many variables upstream and downstream of this industry. If a change of the principal energy resources will be made, it will be required to take caution steps, because this could make a shortage of the energy resources that could destabilize the entire world social-economic-system. For changing main energy resource will be necessary to reconvert many equipments and machinery, training the human resource, make social campaign to encourage the people to use new fuel, invest in new research about efficiency of the new f uel, the environment impact, search for new reserves and make new regulation for the use of this resource.

Mental Illness :: essays research papers

Mental Illness is a term used for a group of disorders causing severe disturbances in thinking, feeling and relating. They result in substantially diminished capacity for coping with the ordinary demands of life. (Mental Illness Defined) There are some different perspectives on the causes of mental illness. The perspectives include the biological, psychodynamic, humanistic and existential, behavioral, cognitive, and sociocultural. Advances in brain imaging techniques have helped scientists study the role of brain structure in mental illness. Some studies have shown brain abnormalities in certain mental illnesses. Some people with schizophrenia have enlarged brain ventricles. In addition, a variety of medical conditions may cause mental illness. Brain damage and strokes can cause loss of memory, impaired concentration and speech, and unusual changes in behavior. Brain tumors, imbalance of hormones, deficiencies in diet, and infections from viruses are other factors. Freud believes th at mental illness is caused by unconscious and unresolved conflicts in the mind. Both the humanistic and existential perspectives view abnormal behavior as resulting from a person’s failure to find meaning in life and fulfill his or her potential. The behavioral perspective explains mental illness, as well as all of human behavior, as a learned response to stimuli. Despite all of these different theories, most modern day psychologists agree that mental illness is caused by a combination of these things. (Mental Illness)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Schizophrenia results not from a single cause, but from a variety of factors. Most scientists believe that it is a biological disease caused by genetic factors, an imbalance of chemicals in the brain, structural brain abnormalities, or abnormalities in the prenatal environment. In addition, stressful life events may contribute to the development of schizophrenia in those who are predisposed to the illness. Approximately 1 percent of people develop schizophrenia at some time during their lives. It is estimated that about 1.8 million people in the United States alone have schizophrenia. (Schizophrenia) The prevalence of schizophrenia is the same regardless of gender, race, and culture. For many schizophrenic patients the symptoms gradually become less severe as they grow older. About 25 percent of people with schizophrenia become symptom-free later in their lives. A variety of symptoms characterize schizophrenia. The most prominent include symptoms of psychosis—such as delusions and hallucinations—as well as bizarre behavior, strange movements, and disorganized thinking and speech. (Brain Disorders: schizophrenia) Many people with schizophrenia do not recognize that their mental functioning is disturbed. Usually a family member points it out.

Pros and Cons of the Mandatory Seatbelt Law Essay -- Pro Con Essays

An enormous division currently exists between the people who believe that automobile safety should be an option and those that feel it must be a requirement. The federal government feels the morally obligated to create the safest driving environment possible. On the other end of the spectrum, opinions exist that the average driver has ability to make the choice of safety on their own. Editorials, political assemblies, debates, and conversations have arrived on the concept of click it or ticket. This idea refers to ticketing any motor vehicle driver and passenger that is not fastened by a seat belt. Arguments have been made for both sides, and have been reviewed in multiple states. One particular article has been written, by Dr. Walter E. Williams, that discussed the negatives of click it or ticket, and has actually demoralized this idea (Williams 2003). The article is properly titled 'Click It or Ticket', and was written in the fall of 2004. His educated opinions reflect one side of the controversial argument; however also contain bias statistics and opinionated logic. Dr. Williams has researched the programs purpose and actions and feels strongly against the policy (Williams 2003). His motive of convincing readers to side with him exists in his tone of rebellion, astonishment, and confusion. His argument lies on the basis of opinion and not practicality. On the other hand, his reasons are just and well-explained, and therefore make for a liable argument. Dr. Williams provides statistics, facts, and general observations to collectively explain his view of the click it or ticket policy (Williams 2003). The first area of Dr. Williams? argument focuses on government responsibility, rights, and laws (Williams 2003). His ge... ...ay of laws and reasonable policy. Dr. Williams is obviously an individual of knowledge and pride, however, his education may not provide the key his views of positive policy. Instead of viewing the governments? attempt at safety as a negative authority, he should reflect on the physical benefits instead of the intangible conflicts. Therefore, the ?Click It or Ticket? article described one way of viewing a current law of governing safety. Dr. Williams clearly disagrees, but an audience should generally view the attempt at safety as the proper acts of government as opposed to the negative. Safety is a necessity for a civil society, and click it or ticket laws allow for a safer than nothing transportation situation. This should be appreciated and will eventually quiet all critics by accurate statistics of saved lives while maintaining a reasonable spending platform.

Loss of Innocence in To Kill a Mockingbird Essay

â€Å"Maycomb was an old town, but it was a tired old town when I first knew it. In rainy weather the streets turned to red slop; grass grew on the sidewalks, the courthouse sagged in the square.† This environment as Scout Finch accurately describes is not the best or conducive place for young children, loud noises, and games. In the same way as the children, the adults of the novel played games that came from their imaginations, and they themselves are the ones who provided the fear for everyone. As most children do Jem, Scout, and their newly-found friend Dill find amusements to make the days pass by with excitement. When they first met Dill at the beginning, the day’s play is in the backyard. The implication is that it becomes routine for them to play and that each day brings a different experience. When Dill joins them in their daily adventures, they begin to create more elaborate activities. Many days they spent improving the treehouse, and acting out parts of plays by Oliver Victor Appleton, and Edgar Rice Burroughs. There games of Tom Swift the Rover Boys, and The Ghost are the sources of their pleasures for hours and days upon end. Once these games seem rot and overplayed they decide to make Boo Radley come out. Thus the â€Å"Boo Radley†, plays begin. These plays are simply for amusement in the end, they teach Jem, Scout, and Dill lessons about respect, courage, and understanding. The â€Å"Boo†, games begin with a simple dare that Jem has to carry out in order to gain respect from his sister and friend. Scout and Jem both learn about courage through the first Boo game they invented by testing their levels of fear. The game has turned into a dangerous, scary expedition that leaves all three of them shaken. Boo’s unspoken, unseen presence at the fire put him in a new light in Jem’s and Scout’s eyes. Yet again, they see reality and their games slowly fading and losing their meaning. The burning house and Boo’s reappearance show Jem and Scout more pieces of reality and causing them to push that much closer to reality and the adult world and that much more of their innocence and childhood is lost. As the trial crept closer, Scout and Jem each have to test their self-control in accepting or ignoring the multitudes of â€Å"nigger-lover† comments coming their way, by adults as well as children. Scout ends up losing all control when she beats up her cousin Francis, for testing her patience by criticising others. Though Scout doesn’t totally understand her mistake until her uncle Jack, punishes and guides Scout to realization. Jem, of his own fault, has to read to Mrs. Dubose every day and eventually he learns an important lesson. Jem and Scout learn about death and they gain an understanding for the type of person Mrs. Dubose is when they see how her views on life have an effect on her death. The adult games have been going on for a while but Scout and Jem are just beginning to see the games evolving. The most difficult matter for Jem and Scout to understand soon comes to be the trial. Though they have been faced with ignorant people calling them â€Å"nigger-lovers†, they haven’t truly had a full understanding of the slang term until the trial is upon them. Scout, Jem, and Dill experience a faint taste of the adult’s games’ flavor, watching from afar as the mob of common men around Maycomb County gather around Atticus, threatening his and Tom’s lives. Scout still in her innocence, breaks the crowd by recognizing Mr. Cunningham and she, proceeds to praise his son Walter without thought to the fact that Mr. Cunningham realizes that he is a father, not just part of a nameless mob, and, in a sense, he â€Å"walks around in Atticus’s skin† for a moment. The individualizing Scout has done humanizes the originally dehumanized mob and ends the threat to many lives at stake. Scout does not realize the extent of her actions until later on and the understanding raises her up a level of maturity. The game that the men are playing puts lives at risk and shows Scout that adults play with strange sets of rules. She reaches an understanding in the jailhouse scene that still continues to push her into the adult world.